My tax bills are calculated based on taxable value instead of state equalized value. What does taxable value mean to me?
Taxable values began in 1995 as part of Proposal A. Taxable values are adjusted each year by the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or 5% whichever is less until property title transfers. Your taxable value cannot be greater than your state equalized value. In other words, Proposal A "capped" taxable value increases by the CPI or 5%, whichever is less.

Can my taxable value increase more than the rate of inflation?
Yes, if:

1. A sale and/or title transfer occurs. In the year following a sale and/or title transfer, the property becomes "uncapped" making the state equalized value (SEV) and taxable value the same. Michigan law states the actual sale price must not be the sole basis for the new SEV for that property.

2. New construction to a property is added to the taxable value.

3. The value of items omitted from the previous year(s) assessed value is added to the taxable value.

The following formula shows how new construction or omitted items are added to the taxable value:

If my taxes are now based on taxable value, why is there an assessed value?
The Michigan Constitution still requires all properties to be assessed annually at 50% of market value.

How was my assessed value determined?
Assessors use a state required mass appraisal method to value properties. We estimate land values from sales data and building values from a state cost manual. Then, we analyze sales data from your neighborhood and develop factors we use to further adjust our estimates to reflect local market value.

Assessors must use sales that occur in a two-year time period that ends on March 31.  For example, for the 2007 assessed values, local assessors must use sales that occurred between April 1, 2004 and March 31, 2006 to prepare market value estimates.  This means the local assessor lags behind what's happening in the current market between buyers and sellers of property.

I haven’t made any improvements to my house. Why did my assessed value change?
Your market value can change even when there is no physical change to your property. A growing economy or increasing population can push housing values steadily upward. The Assessor does not create increases in property value. He/she recognizes changes as they occur and must adjust values accordingly.

Why is my change in assessed value different than my neighbor’s?
Assessed value changes vary according to the individual characteristics of houses in relation to sales in your area. Building style, size and amenities such as porches, decks, garages, and extra bathrooms affect value estimates.

My assessed value didn’t change or went down, but my taxable value went up. Why?
The current sales information for your neighborhood may show no value increase or a decrease in value when compared to last year’s value. However, the taxable value is tied to the Consumer Price Index and calculated annually causing an increase in your taxable value.

How do I know if my assessed value is reasonable?
Compare the market value of your property with sales of similar homes in your neighborhood. The sales should be from the same time period used by the Assessor and on homes that are similar to yours in size, style, age and condition. The Assessor’s Office has sales information to assist you. (Market value = Assessed Value x 2)

I just bought a new house, why isn’t my assessed value one half of my sale price?
Michigan law prohibits assessors from basing values on one sale price. We are required to value your property based on the methods used to value other properties in your area. While we hope our value estimate is close to your sale price, it is an estimate and may not be the same as your recent sale.

What if I disagree with the assessed value on my property?
After gathering the facts about your assessed value, contact our office at Room 104 in City Hall or call us at 269-966-3369. Appeals are heard at the March Board of Review, either by letter or in person. This step preserves your appeal rights for further action at Michigan Tax Tribunal.

What is a property transfer affidavit?
Changes in state law after Proposal A created the property transfer affidavit. An affidavit must be filed whenever title of real estate or buildings on leased land is transferred. It must be filed even if you are not recording a deed. Filing with the local assessor is mandatory.

Where do I obtain and file the affidavit?
Property transfer affidavits can be obtained from closing agents such as a title office, financial institution or attorney. They can also be obtained at your local assessor’s office or on the state's web site at www.michigan.gov/treasury. The new owner must file the affidavit with the local assessor within 45 days of the transfer.

What is the purpose of the affidavit?
Assessors use the affidavit to make sure that property is assessed properly and receives the correct taxable value.

What is a "transfer of ownership?"
State law defines a "transfer of ownership" as "the conveyance of title to or present interest in property, including the beneficial use of the property." Transfers include deeds, land contracts, and a variety of transactions outlined on the back of the affidavit form.

What happens after ownership of a property is transferred?
The Michigan Constitution limits how much a property’s taxable value can increase while owned by the same person. Once the property is transferred, the assessor must change the taxable value to 50% of the property’s estimated market value. In other words, in the year following the sale the taxable value equals the current state equalized value.

Are certain types of transfers exempt from adjustment?
YES. Some of the exempt transactions include changes in ownership solely to exclude or include a spouse, transferring a property into a trust where the sole beneficiary is the creator of the trust or that person’s spouse, redemption from a tax sale, or transfer to effect a foreclosure. Some of the exempt transactions are listed on the affidavit form and full descriptions are in MCL Section 211.27a(7)(a-m).

What is the homestead or principal residence exemption?
State law grants a principal residence exemption from local school operating taxes for homesteads and qualified agricultural properties. Currently this is a reduction of 18 mills of school tax.

How do I qualify for the exemption?
To qualify you must own the property and occupy it as your legal, primary residence. The deadline to qualify for any given year is May 1 of that year. Buyers who close and/or occupy the residence after that date are eligible for exemption in the following year.

What form do I use?
If this is your first principal residence application or you are buying a property that was not previously a principal residence, you can use the Homeowner's Principal Residence Exemption Affidavit (2368).

What if I stop using my homestead as my primary residence?
If you stop using your exempt property as your principal residence, you are required to file a Request to Rescind Homestead Exemption (2602). This form must be filed within 90 days of the change. The exemption remains in effect through December 31 of that year.

If my home is for sale, may I keep the principal residence exemption?
You may file a Conditional Rescission of Principal Residence Exemption Affidavit (4640) for three years if all of the following conditions are being met:

• the property is actively for sale.
• the owner is claiming another Principal residence exemption in Michigan.
• the property is NOT leased.
• the property is NOT occupied.
• the property is not being used for business of commercial purpose.
• the exemption has NOT been denied.
• form 4640 is received on or before May 1 for the first year filed.
• form 4640 is received by December 31 for the second and third year the property owner is applying for the exemption.

What if I sell my house and buy a new one?
You need to rescind the principal residence on the house you sold and request an exemption on your new house. Use a Request to Rescind Homeowner's Principal Residence Exemption (2602) form to rescind your old exemption and the Homeowner's Principal Residence Exemption Affidavit (2368) form for your new home. The Michigan Department of Treasury recommends the forms be completed and distributed by the closing agent who supervises real estate transactions. Forms are also available at the Assessor’s Office or on the state's web site at www.michigan.gov/treasury..

When are my taxes due?
The summer taxes are billed July 1 each year and are due by August 20th without penalties. The winter taxes are billed December 1 each year are due by February 14th without penalties. On March 1st, the delinquent tax rolls are given to the County Treasurer and additional penalties are added.

What period do my tax bills cover?
Although the taxing agencies on your bills may have different fiscal years, your bills are for the calendar year in which they are billed. Add your July and December tax bills together for your total annual taxes.

How are my taxes computed?
Taxes are computed by multiplying your taxable value times the total mills. A mill is $1.00 per thousand dollars of taxable value. An easy formula to calculate taxes is shown below:

(Remember, a homestead is exempt from 18 mills of school operating taxes!)

Why did my taxes increase?
Taxes can increase because:

1. The tax rate increased. Periodically, voters have an opportunity to renew or approve increases to tax rates at special elections. If voters approve additional millage, your taxes will increase.

2. Your taxable value increased. Your taxable value may have increased because (a) it was adjusted by the annual Consumer Price Index, (b) it was uncapped after property ownership transferred, or (c) new construction or omitted items were added.

Why are my neighbor’s taxes less than mine?
Property values are determined individually and differences in style, size, condition and amenities cause differences in taxable value. If you recently purchased your property, your taxable value was uncapped. Your neighbor’s taxable value may still be capped and less than yours. A lower taxable value means lower taxes.

I’m building a new house. How can I estimate the taxes?
Estimate your annual taxes by multiplying ½ of the estimated total value of the completed home times the tax rate. Be sure to add land value to your value estimate before computing your estimated taxes.

I don’t have any children in school, why do I have to pay school taxes?
Michigan law requires everyone to support local public schools through property taxes. Eligible homeowners may be exempt for 18 mills of school operating taxes, but are still responsible for school debt, building funds and state education taxes.

My mortgage company raised my house payment because of my taxes. Why did the taxes go up so much?
Typically this happens about one year after you buy a new house. Your mortgage company probably based your original tax escrow payment on the last known taxes. After you purchased the property, its taxable value was uncapped for the next tax year. The taxes were then based on a higher value. Once this happens, your mortgage company reevaluated your escrow amounts and changed your payment to cover the actual taxes on your home. They may also increase your payment to make up any shortfalls in the previous year.

How can I estimate my monthly tax escrow payment?
One way to avoid escrow shortages is to base your tax escrow payments on estimated taxes. Use the current State Equalized Value times the tax rate to estimate your total taxes. Divide by 12 to get a monthly amount. We can help you estimate taxes, just call us at 269-966-3369 for help.

Do I have any delinquent taxes on my property?
Because the Assessor has access to the City Treasurer’s payment records, we can answer questions about current taxes due. You can call the Calhoun County Treasurer's Office at 269-781-0807 or check the county's web site at www.calhouncountymi.gov to find out about delinquent taxes for prior years.  It’s helpful if you have a parcel identification number handy to help the County Treasurer look up your records.

Who owns the vacant lot next to the brown house on Main Street?
When trying to locate information on vacant property, you need to come into our office and let us help you locate the property on a tax map. This way you can be sure you’re getting the correct information.

How can I find my property lines?
If you need to find your property lines, you should contact a local surveyor to perform this service. Several are listed in the yellow pages of the phone books. We can provide your lot size and a copy of your plot map to get you started, but we cannot survey or locate stakes on your property.

Where do I get a deed prepared for my property?
Contact an attorney for a new deed. If you are familiar with property transactions and feel comfortable preparing legal documents by yourself, deed forms are available at most office supply stores.

Where can I get a copy of my deed?
Copies of recorded deeds and land contracts can be obtained from the Calhoun County Register of Deeds Office at 315 W. Green St., Marshall, MI 49068.

If you are charged with a civil infraction, missing a court date will result in a default judgment against you. It is as if you chose not to oppose the charges. The court will send you notice of what needs to be done next (i.e. payment of fines & costs, removal of inoperable vehicles, etc.) If this was not your intent, you should contact an attorney immediately to determine if anything can be done.

If you have an emergency near or on your court date, make contact with the prosecutor’s office at 269-969-6906 to determine if other arrangements can be made. You will need to provide proof of the emergency to the court.

When the PRF is high the radar has less time to sample the atmosphere between pulses. If the radar has less time to sense, it can not detect objects further away from the radar as compared to a low PRF. Thus, a high PRF has a smaller unambiguous range as compared to a low PRF.

The Doppler dilemma states there is an inverse relationship between the unambiguous range and the unambiguous velocity.

When PRF is low----unambiguous range is high---but that results in a low velocity range

When PRF is high----unambiguous range is low---but that results in a high velocity range

Example: Suppose a radar can sense up to 250 miles from the location of the radar (unambiguous range) and can detect velocities of up to 30 m/s before velocity folding occurs (aka velocity aliasing). If the PRF was increased, the unambiguous range will drop to say 200 miles but the unambiguous velocity will increase to say 35 m/s.

Which precipitation types are best detected by radar?
In general, the larger the precipitation particle the better it will detected by radar. However, not all particles of the same size will have the same reflectivity. Ice is more efficient at absorbing the energy emitted from radar as compared to liquid water. Combining size and precipitation type, we get the following relationships. With each statement below assume the precipitation rate is equal:

What happens during velocity aliasing and range folding?
Suppose the maximum unambiguous velocity is 30 m/s. If the wind is blowing at 35 m/s, the radar will show the 35 m/s wind as a 5 m/s wind instead. All wind speeds above 30 m/s will be aliased in this case. Computer algorithms can correct this aliasing or increasing the PRF can correct this aliasing.

Suppose the maximum unambiguous range is 200 kilometers. If a storm is located at 225 kilometers from the radar, the radar will detect the storm as being 25 kilometers from the radar instead. Any energy returned to radar beyond 200 kilometers would be range folded. This occurs because the radar energy bounced off the distant storm is returning to the radar after the radar has already sent out another pulse and is "listening" for return echoes. Decreasing the PRF can correct this problem.

What happens during ducting?
Ducting is exceptional super-refraction. Super-refraction occurs when the trajectory of a radar beam bends towards the earth's surface more than normal. In other words, the rate the elevation of the radar beam changes with distance away from the radar is less than normal. The radar beam will tend to increase in height above the earth's surface when moving away from the radar site because of the earth's curvature. In a super-refraction situation, the radar beam could be increasing at a lesser rate with height than normal as the beam moves away from the radar site or the beam could even be bending back down and getting closer to the earth's surface in spite of the earth's curvature. It is ducting when the radar beam actually bends closer the earth's surface with distance away from the radar. The bending could be strong enough for the radar beam to bounce off the earth's surface.

Ducting is caused by strong low level inversions (temperature increases with height). Ducting can also occur when a strong cap (EML) of warm and dry air exists in the lower troposphere above very moist air. Ducting causes the radar to be able to sample much further distances than normal. Ducting increases ground clutter also since the radar beam remains closer to the earth's surface for a greater distance and can even bend into the earth's surface. Ducting is more common in the morning hours since this time of the day experiences the strongest low-level inversions (due to cooling of earth's surface through longwave radiation emission) but ducting can also occur anytime a strong cap exists in the lower troposphere.

The advantages of ducting are increased radar range, being able to sample storms further from radar, and being able to sample lower elevations within storms further from radar. The disadvantages of ducting are increased ground clutter and increased anomalous propagation (due to radar beams bouncing energy back from hitting earth's surface or sampling storms beyond the radar's maximum unambiguous range).

How does radar detect precipitation particles?
Radar sends out a certain wavelength of electromagnetic radiation. This electromagnetic radiation is of the longwave variety and therefore will not damage the environment. The energy emitted from the radar travels at about the speed of light as does all electromagnetic radiation. The speed of light is 299,800,000 m/s. With this speed, radar can sample hydrometeors during one pulse in a small fraction of a second. Radar can typically send and receive radiation between 200 and 3,000 times in one second. The number of pulses radar sends out is called the Pulse Repetition Frequency.

Radar sends out electromagnetic radiation that strikes hydrometeors in the atmosphere. Some of this radiation reflects back directly toward the radar set. This energy that is reflected directly back is called backscattered radiation. The amount of energy the radar receives (compared to the amount it sends out) is very small. An example of this is to think about the amount of light reflected of Mars and seen on Earth compared to the total energy emitted from the Sun. The Earth only receives a very small amount of the total energy that the sun gives off that is reflected off Mars and toward the Earth.

The amount of backscattered radiation the radar receives depends on the number of hydrometeors, the size of hydrometeors and absorption qualities of the hydrometeors such as density, shape and other unique properties. An object with a higher density, a larger surface area facing perpendicular to the radar's energy and composition of a more reflective material will send relatively more backscattered energy to the radar set.

Radar is an active remote sensor. It sends out as well as receives electromagnetic radiation. The backscattered energy it receives is processed by the computer and put into a graphical form for the radar user. Higher amounts of backscattered energy correlate with higher VIP values on the graphical display. Because electromagnetic radiation travels at a known speed and the radar can process the time between radiation being emitted and received, a known distance to the hydrometeors can be calculated. Velocity (m/s) * Time (s) = Distance (meters). With the information of distance and amount of backscattered radiation, the data can be plotted on a graph showing intensity of precipitation and the direction / distance the precipitation is from the radar set.

Can RADAR detect a tornado?
A tornado is a "violently rotating column of air in association with a cumulonimbus cloud that is in contact with the earth's surface". One limitation of RADAR is that it can not tell the RADAR operator if the mesocyclonic circulation is in contact with the ground. The RADAR operator can only go by probabilities from the magnitude of the gate to gate shear. The only method of determining if the tornadic circulation is on the ground is through the use of a trained storm spotter.

Another limitation of RADAR detecting tornadoes is due the earth's curvature. As a storm locates further from the RADAR site, it becomes more likely the RADAR beam will overshoot the mesocyclonic circulation. It is best to use a low tilt angle because the higher tilt angles have a higher probability of overshooting the mesocyclonic circulation.

Also, a tornadic / mesocyclonic circulation can not be detected if in moves into the RADAR's cone of silence (conal region immediately above RADAR set).

Still another limitation is beam spreading. The pixel size increases when moving further from the RADAR set. This decreased resolution makes it more difficult to identify mesocyclonic circulations that are displaced far from the RADAR. The resolution of a tornadic circulation erodes rapidly beyond 100 kilometers from the RADAR set.

Due to the shallow nature and brief life span of land spouts and gustinadoes, RADAR can usually not pick up the circulation associated with these types of tornadoes.

RADAR is very successful at being able to detect a mesocyclonic circulation especially if it is located between about 50 to 100 kilometers from the RADAR set. Within this range, the RADAR has a more likely chance of detecting the core of the mesocyclonic circulation since it occurs in the mid-levels of a supercell. Strong outbound velocities of at least 45 knots next to strong inbound velocities of at least 45 knots are used to infer a mesocyclone. Even with this identification, less than 30% of mesocyclones that trigger the alert on the Doppler RADAR produce a tornado.

Supercell types, characteristic severe weather and the radar reflectivity signature with each
There are three types of supercell thunderstorms: Classic supercells, HP (high precipitation) supercells, and LP (low precipitation supercells). Low level moisture and the value of precipitable water (PW) strongly determine which type of supercell a severe thunderstorm will be. LP supercells in the U.S. primarily occur in the Lee of the Rockies while HP supercells are common in the eastern Great Plains and eastward. Classic supercells are common in the Great Plains but can occur in regions where LP and HP supercells are common. The type of severe weather to expect from each of these supercell types and the radar reflectivity signature is given below:

LP SUPERCELLS:

STRONG STRAIGHT-LINE WINDS (due to a high amount of evaporational cooling as precipitation evaporates into surrounding low and mid-level dry air).

LARGE HAIL (low amount of moisture results in a small water loading of the updraft, low PW values (less than 1.00 inch) allows the updraft to be stronger than it otherwise would have been if PW values were high). I have seen cases were an LP supercell produced baseball size hail and no other precipitation.

TORNADOES (tornadoes tend to be weaker in association with LP supercells as compared to other supercell types because the forward flank downdraft and rear flank downdrafts are not as well defined and the storm is higher based). Tornadoes, if they do occur, are very visible in person due to the light amount of precipitation and a higher based wall cloud. LP supercells tend to be higher based than the other supercell types because air must rise to a higher level in the atmosphere in order for condensation to occur. LP supercells are extremely difficult to locate on radar reflectivity since there is a lack of precipitation wrapping around the wall cloud.

CLASSIC SUPERCELLS:

Classic supercells give the best indication of a hook echo on Doppler radar. Many classic supercells are isolated from other storms. Classic supercells have varying degrees of hail size, tornado strength, and strength of straight-line wind. CAPE (how unstable the atmosphere is) along with PW, freezing level and elevation determines how large hail will grow. Dry air in the mid-levels (large dewpoint depression) along with moisture in the PBL (high dewpoints) result in strong straight-line wind and convective instability. Strong low level speed and directional shear along with high CAPE form a favorable environment for tornadoes.

HP SUPERCELLS:

HP supercells have a kidney bean shaped appearance on Doppler radar. Many HP supercells occur in multicell supercell clusters or when a classic supercell draws increasing amounts of moisture into the circulation. These are often termed rainwrapped supercells. Tornadoes are generally more deadly when they are rainwrapped since their approach is unknown until they are right on top of you. Hail tends to be smaller in association with HP supercells than in association with the other supercell types because:

1) CAPE is reduced due to intense water loading

2) Freezing levels tend to be higher and elevations lower in association with HP's (compare high plains to Southeast US). Strong straight-line winds are not as common with HP's since moisture extends through a higher depth in the atmosphere. Evaporational cooling and negative buoyancy are lower because the dewpoint depression in the lower and middle troposphere tend to be lower (dewpoints higher).

What is a "hook echo"?
A hook echo is displayed on radar reflectivity. It is a signature produced by precipitation held aloft that wraps around the mid-level mesocyclone. Since the mesocyclone has counterclockwise winds, the reflectivity signature of a hook echo will have a cyclonically shaped hook. The area free from reflectivity inside the hook is the updraft and inflow notch region of the supercell. A hook echo is one clue to a radar operator that a supercell has a potential of producing a tornado. Many of the violent tornadoes associated with classic supercells will show a distinct hook echo.

What is the relevance of "Clear Air Mode"?
Clear air mode serves a few useful purposes. It is often used when no significant precipitation echoes are on radar, when light precipitation is on radar, or when the detection of subtle boundaries in the atmosphere is desired.

During clear air mode, the radar antenna ROTATES MORE SLOWLY. This allows for a finer resolution and heightened sensitivity of the radar. The goal of clear air mode is to detect "clear air echos". Clear air echoes include dust, insects, birds, and even subtle reflection differences produced along boundaries in the atmosphere due to temperature and moisture gradients. Clear air returns (returns that would not show on precipitation mode) are typically 5 dBZ or less.

Only the lowest tilt angles are used in clear air mode. This is because most clear air returns are in the lower troposphere. Less actual tilt scans compensates for the fact that each tilt scan takes much longer in clear air mode (remember the antenna is rotating more slowly). Even though there are less tilt scans to make up a volume scan, a clear air volume scan still takes twice as long as a precipitation mode volume scan since the antenna rotates much more slowly to catch the fine details in the atmosphere. Also in clear air mode the PRF is decreased. This allows the radar to detect echoes further from the radar site but also contributes to tilt scans taking longer and an increase of velocity aliasing.

The precipitation particles clear air mode is used to detect are primarily drizzle and light snow. Since the antenna rotates much faster in precipitation mode, the reduced sensitivity does not allow the radar to detect fine particles of precipitation or particles of precipitation that have minimal reflections. Ice is less reflective than water with respect to radar energy, thus a finer resolution of the radar beam is needed in order to detect small snow crystals. Clear air mode can also be used to locate frontal boundaries and mesoscale frontal boundaries such as outflow boundaries, sea breeze fronts and drylines. A sharp moisture and/or temperature gradient in the atmosphere sets up an interface of higher reflectivity (an example is to think of skipping rocks on water, the rock is reflective as it hits the boundary between the air and water). In a case where rapid refraction occurs, some of the energy will backscatter. Also, convergence occurs along frontal boundaries. Dust and insects tend to convergence along synoptic and mesoscale frontal boundaries. These increased regions of bugs and dust allow for a higher return on clear air mode thus allowing for the detection of these boundaries. Bird migrations can also be detected in clear air mode.

What is radial velocity, base radial velocity and storm relative radial velocity?
The succinct definition of radial velocity is "motion toward or away from Doppler RADAR". This radial component only considers the wind speed along the horizontal plane the RADAR is sampling and only the wind component relative to the radar. The radial velocity relative to the radar site is also called "base radial velocity". Use base radial velocity in a situation where the winds from a storm are moving in a straight line of action such as winds associated with a squall line or gust front.

Computer algorithms can produce a storm relative radial velocity when the storm movement is combined with the base radial velocity. Storm relative radial velocity is the radial wind component relative to the storm. The magnitude of base radial velocity will depend on the speed a storm is moving toward or away from the RADAR and the wind motions within the storm moving toward or away from the RADAR. The storm relative radial velocity will subtract out storm movement and will thus give radial wind information that is completely related to wind motions within a storm and relative to a storm. Use storm relative radial velocity when assessing rotation in a storm.

The faster a storm moves the greater the difference will be between the base and storm relative radial velocity.

What is the Doppler shift?
When an object emits light or sound, that light or sound will have a particular wavelength. If an object is moving, the object's motion will cause a distortion in the wavelength pattern relative to a "stationary" sensor. Keep in mind that this is an exercise in relativity. From the moving object's perspective, there is no distortion of the wavelength of light. It is sensors that are not moving at the same velocity as the object that will detect the shift in wavelength. Here is an analogy to clarify:

Suppose a baseball player who is running at 10 mph throws a baseball at 50 mph in the same direction he is running. Relative to the running baseball player the ball is moving away at 50 mph. However, a stationary baseball player that catches the throw detects the ball approaching at 60 mph. This is because the motion of the running baseball player and the motion of the thrown ball are added together.

An object moving toward a sensor will have a more rapid forward displacement of wave energy relative to the sensor. The sensor will detect a higher pitch or relatively shorter wavelength light.

An object moving away from a sensor will have a less rapid forward displacement of wave energy relative to the sensor. The sensor will detect a lower pitch or relatively longer wavelength light.

What is the meaning of a TVS icon?
A TVS (Tornado Vortex Signature) is a Doppler RADAR alarm resulting from at least 45-knot outbound adjacent to at least 45-knot inbound radial velocity. The supercell must be reasonably close to the radar in order for the radar to trigger the TVS. If it is above the radar, the tornadic circulation is in the radar 's cone of silence. If it is too far from the radar, the beam will overshoot the circulation. The optimum distance occurs where the beam can sample the mesocyclone (and possibly the actual tornadic circulation) with several tilt angles.

The NWS will often issue a tornado warning from radar evidence alone if the mesocyclone associated with the TVS is deep and persistent. Most of the strong and violent tornadoes have deep and persistent mesocyclones. If the tornadic circulation is in a favorable location to the radar (not too close or too far away), volume scans (through using various tilt angles) along with examining the output every 6 minutes can be used to assess the depth and persistence of the mesocyclone.

A TVS on radar does not necessarily mean a tornado is occurring. To be a tornado the circulation must be on the ground. The radar is not able to tell if the "tornado signature" is on the ground. Less than 30% of even strong mesocyclones produce a tornado. There is another "volume of silence" the radar has and that is the volume underneath the lowest tilt angle. If the lowest tilt angle is 0.5 degrees, the radar will be unable to detect anything that could be detected under 0.5 degrees (a radar is only able to sample a planar area with each tilt angle). Radar is sometimes taken out into the field during storm chases to collect data on the circulation that is near the ground for research purposes.

What is "beam spreading" and the consequences?
In a 3-D sense, a beam of radar emission has a cone shape. The tip of the cone is at the radar site and the diameter of the cone gradually increases away from the radar site. As a radar beam moves further from the radar, it expands to take up a larger volume. An example of this process is to turn out the lights and shine a flashlight on the wall. First stand 2 feet from the wall and then gradually stand back further from the wall. You will notice as you keep standing further from the wall that the diameter of the brightest light striking the wall becoming larger and larger. You will also notice some light from the flashlight does not stay in the main flashlight beam. A small portion of the light fills the room (you will notice that when you shine a flashlight on the wall that the light becomes dimmer the further away it is from the bright spot on the wall). The light that is not in the main beam is similar to "side-lobes" that are produced by radar.

A process called attenuation occurs as a radar beam of radiation leaves the radar site. Substances in the air absorb some radar radiation including hydrometeors. The more space a beam travels through, the more absorption that will take place of that beam. Energy backscattered from a storm near the radar will be more powerful than the energy backscattered from a distant storm. Backscattered radiation close to the radar does not undergo much attenuation. This causes rainfall intensity to be measured higher for storms near the radar as compared to far from the radar, all else being equal.

The resolution of radar data decreases with distance from the radar. A "range gate" is the area encompassed by one pixel of radar data. These range gates become larger with increasing distance from the radar site since the beam is expanding as it moves away from the radar site. Large range gates will result in less resolution. An analogy is to think of two computer images where one looks crisp and sharp while another looks grainy. The grainy image has larger pixels and thus has a poorer resolution. The consequence of having a larger range gate results in an overestimation of the areal extent of rainfall. The value of dBZ in a range gate represents the average dBZ within that range gate. Also, the entire range gate must be filled with a dBZ value. In actuality, precipitation and/or heavy precipitation may only be occurring in part of the range gate. Since every range gate must be filled that has reflectivity coming from it, this causes the area that precipitation covers to be larger on radar than in actuality. This error increases with distance from the radar.

In situations where only part of the range gate is filled, the reflectivity will be lower in that range gate than is occurring in actuality with the precipitation that is occurring in part of the range gate. The reflectivity will be lower because the reflectivity must be averaged over the entire range gate. As range gate size increases, it becomes increasingly more likely that only part of the range gate is being filled with precipitation and/or heavy precipitation.

To sum up, as beam spreading increases (diameter of cone increases), rainfall intensity is increasingly underestimated, rainfall areal coverage is increasingly overestimated and precipitation and/or heavy precipitation in only part of the range gate increasingly becomes averaged over a larger area.

Why do the middle levels of storms often have the highest reflectivity?
In the warm season thunderstorm environment, the PBL (surface to ~5,000 ft) is warmer than the middle (5,000 ft. to 30,000 ft) and upper levels (above 30,000 ft) of a thunderstorm. Much of the precipitation that reaches the surface from thunderstorms is in the form of rain. In the middle and upper levels of the storm, ice is much more common than in the low levels of the storm. Hail is at its greatest size in the middle and upper levels of a storm. Hailstones in the upper levels of storms will be frozen solid. As the hailstones fall into warmer above freezing air they will begin to melt. A melting hailstone has a reflectivity of a gigantic raindrop. Reflectivity from "wet" ice is much stronger than from "solid" ice. Many hailstones melt before reaching the surface. Thus, the region of the storm with the best combination of wet hailstones and large hailstones will have the highest reflectivity. This often occurs in the middle levels of a storm.

What is spectrum width and the importance it has?
Spectrum width is the distribution of velocities within a single radar pixel. One pixel on radar represents a volume. Within this volume can be literally millions of individual hydrometeors. Each individual hydrometeor will have its own speed and direction of movement. When turbulence exists in the atmosphere, individual hydrometeors within the radar pixel volume have vastly different radial velocities.

In order to produce a pixel of radar velocity, the radar averages the individual radial velocities with a volume sample to produce a single average radial velocity that is displayed for that pixel. In a situation where shear and turbulence is small within a pixel, the spectrum width will be small. In a situation where shear and radial velocity is large within a pixel, the spectrum width will be large. A technical way of defining spectrum width is that it is the standard deviation of the velocity distribution within a single pixel.

Spectrum width can be used to locate the center pixel of a TVS. Within the center pixel of a TVS will be a large velocity distribution (near zero at one location within the pixel and strong inbound and/or strong outbound velocities within that same pixel). Variations in the velocity distribution within a pixel occur depending on if the center of circulation is in the exact center of a pixel or near the edge of a pixel. The large distribution of velocities lead to a large standard deviation of velocities and thus a large spectrum width. Besides in association with a mesocyclone, spectrum width will show a turbulent pattern near any shear axis (such as the change in wind speed and direction along a squall line).

What is the difference between Accuracy and Precision?
Accuracy is defined as, "The ability of a measurement to match the actual value of the quantity being measured". If in reality it is 34.0 F outside and a temperature sensor reads 34.0 F, then than sensor is accurate.

Precision is defined as, "(1) The ability of a measurement to be consistently reproduced" and "(2) The number of significant digits to which a value has been reliably measured". If on several tests the temperature sensor matches the actual temperature while the actual temperature is held constant, then the temperature sensor is precise. By the second definition, the number 3.1415 is more precise than the number 3.14

An example of a sensor with LOW accuracy and LOW precision: Suppose a lab refrigerator holds a constant temperature of 38.0 F. A temperature sensor is tested 10 times in the refrigerator. The temperatures from the test yield the temperatures of: 39.4, 38.1, 39.3, 37.5, 38.3, 39.1, 37.1, 37.8, 38.8, 39.0. This distribution shows no tendency toward a particular value (lack of precision) and does not acceptably match the actual temperature (lack of accuracy).

An example of a sensor with HIGH accuracy and LOW precision: Suppose a lab refrigerator holds a constant temperature of 38.0 F. A temperature sensor is tested 10 times in the refrigerator. The temperatures from the test yield the temperatures of: 37.8, 38.3, 38.1, 38.0, 37.6, 38.2, 38.0, 38.0, 37.4, 38.3. This distribution shows no impressive tendency toward a particular value (lack of precision) but each value does come close to the actual temperature (high accuracy).

An example of a sensor with LOW accuracy and HIGH precision: Suppose a lab refrigerator holds a constant temperature of 38.0 F. A temperature sensor is tested 10 times in the refrigerator. The temperatures from the test yield the temperatures of : 39.2, 39.3, 39.1, 39.0, 39.1, 39.3, 39.2, 39.1, 39.2, 39.2. This distribution does show a tendency toward a particular value (high precision) but every measurement is well off from the actual temperature (low accuracy).

An example of a sensor with HIGH accuracy and HIGH precision: Suppose a lab refrigerator holds a constant temperature of 38.0 F. A temperature sensor is tested 10 times in the refrigerator. The temperatures from the test yield the temperatures of: 38.0, 38.0, 37.8, 38.1, 38.0, 37.9, 38.0, 38.2, 38.0, 37.9. This distribution does show a tendency toward a particular value (high precision) and is very near the actual temperature each time (high accuracy).

The goal of any meteorological instrument is to have high accuracy (sensor matching reality as close as possible) and to also have a high precision (being able to consistently replicate results and to measure with as many significant digits as appropriately possible). Meteorological instruments, including radar, need to be calibrated in order that they sustain high accuracy and high precision.

What are "Anomalous Propagation" and "False Echoes"?
Anomalous Propagation is abbreviated as AP. AP and false echoes are one of the biggest enemies of the radar meteorologist. Those without experience in radar meteorology are often "burned" by AP and false echoes. AP is a false reflectivity echo on radar (a reflectivity echo that is NOT precipitation, especially echoes produced by unusual rates of refraction in the atmosphere). With experience you will be able to recognize which echoes are AP / false echoes and which are precipitation. If the index of refraction is at a standard level, computer algorithms can remove some of the AP and false echoes. In cases where the index of refraction is unusual, AP is much more likely to show on radar. In extreme cases, the air near the ground may be so cold and dense that a radar beam that starts out moving upward is bent all the way down to the ground. This produces strong echoes at large distances from the radar. Generally, the Doppler velocity of AP echoes is zero, but the echoes themselves can move around because propagation characteristics of the atmosphere keep changing.

There are 4 common AP and false echo signatures. Each of these will be discussed below:

a. GROUND CLUTTER- This is the most common false echo. It results from backscattering from the radar beam sidelobes. Ground clutter is most common when low elevation beam angles are used and in cases where a low-level inversion is in place. Ground clutter is the easiest false echo for the radar operation to recognize. It is easy to recognize since ground clutter does not move in any organized fashion, it has no kind of structure to it that is similar to real precipitation, and it is always close to the radar.

b. HIGH SUPERREFRACTION- Superrefraction is also termed ducting if the radar beam bend down toward the earth's surface enough to actually intersect the earth's surface. When radar beams bounce off the earth's surface some of that energy will backscatter to the radar to show AP. Ducting is more likely when a strong lower tropospheric inversion is in place, especially when the low-level air is moist and the air above the inversion is very dry. Ducting is more likely in the morning since inversions tend to be stronger in the morning (colder air under warmer air). When ducting occurs, ground clutter echoes are also much larger in spatial coverage since side lobes are more easily bounced off the earth's surface.

c. ECHOES BEYOND MAXIMUM UNAMBIGUOUS RANGE- Radar's send pulses out at the rate a several hundred per second. This can be done since radar beams move at the speed of light. After radar sends a single beam out, it listening for returning energy. The time it listens for return echoes from that single pulse is limited by the pulse repetition frequency that the radar is set to. If energy from a previous radar beam is returned after radar has already sent out another pulse, this tardy backscattered energy will show at an incorrect range from the radar. The radar thinks all returns are from the pulse it just sent out. These can be some of the most difficult false echoes to recognize since the returns have a precipitation structure to them but they can be easily recognized if multiple radars are used and higher tilt angles are used. Often these misplaced echoes can be recognized since they have a grainy structure to them since these were echoes detected at a long range from the radar set.

d. BIOLIFE, MOUNTAINS, ECT.- Mountains are an AP problem in some locations. The amount of reflectivity from the mountains will depend on the elevation angle of the radar beam and the current index of refraction in the atmosphere. There are all kinds of other objects that can produce echoes that are not precipitation including aircraft, birds, dust, and strong density gradients.

The last thing a weather person would want to do is track AP or false echoes on radar thinking it is real precipitation. It is important to acquaint yourself with the situations in which AP and false echoes are likely to show on the radar sites within your forecast region.

If you have data from more than one radar, AP and false echoes are easy to identify, because the neighboring radars generally won't see the same thing. If you have just one radar but can look at different angles, you will find that AP and false echoes tends to be confined to the lowest elevation angles. When the radar is pointed higher in the sky, it's unlikely that the beam can be bent backward all the way to the ground.

If you're stuck with just one radar and one elevation angle, you have to get more imaginative. The structure of AP echo tends to be "unusual", with sudden, sharp changes in intensity. Also, its motion tends to be erratic, although this can also be misleading. The best points of comparison are surface observations and satellite data.

What is Attenuation?
Attenuation is the weakening of a radar beam as it moves downstream due to some of the energy being lost to scattering and absorption. The further a radar beam moves downstream the more dust, hydrometeors, etc the radar beam will have to pass through. Because of attenuation, storms close to the radar are better sampled than storms far from the radar site. Beam spreading and attenuation both combine to produce a much poorer sampling of storms far from the radar. Attenuation is higher when the radar beam has the flow through a large number of hydrometeors. Storms and precipitation close to the radar degrade the radar energy before it reaches storms further from the radar. Smaller wavelength radar beams attenuate more rapidly than long wavelength radar. Because of this, most television station radars (C-band) have a shorter range of high clarity compared to the WSR-88D radar (S-band).

What is VIL (Vertically Integrated Liquid)?
VIL was a "fad" and was most popular when the WSR-88D radar was first installed. VIL is the integration of reflectivity within a column of air. A higher VIL means there is more precipitation in a column of air. At one time it was thought a VIL value is associated with a certain hail size. The term "VIL of the day" was a term used by the NWS to describe the VIL value that associates with severe hail (3/4" of an inch in diameter or greater). If was found that the relationship between the VIL value and hail size is much more complex than previously thought. The VIL values correlation to hail size depends on season, synoptic environment, elevation, storm speed, storm structure, hail reflectivity characteristics etc. The relationship is too complex to issue a severe thunderstorm warning with respect to hail size from the VIL value alone, although the VIL value can be used as a guide and is especially useful if the VIL is very high. The VIL value has the following limitations:

1. The values are seasonally and regionally dependent. The value is also dependent upon the cloud physics and synoptic considerations for that particular day.

2. Values within 20 miles of radar will be underestimated since part of the storm will be in the radar's cone of silence. Values at the edge of the radar display are also underestimated since the higher elevation angles are overshooting the storms (lower half of storm is not being sampled). VIL values will be higher where all tilt angles are able to sample the entire precipitation / hail core of the storm.

3. VILs are less accurate for highly tilted storms. VIL is underestimated for tilted updrafts since the hail core tilts with respect to a vertical column of reflectivity.

4. VILs are higher for wet hail than dry hail

5. VIL value may be contaminated by non-precipitation echoes

VIL can be used as a "guide" for assessing hail size and intensity of precipitation but as mentioned has many limitations. VIL has units of mass divided by area (kg/m^2). The mass is estimated by the radar reflectivity factor. VIL has a display similar to reflectivity products: heavier precipitation and hail will show a higher VIL (higher VIL value colors).

What are range, azimuth, elevation angle and echo height?
Range = Distance from radar site to echo centroid

Azimuth = Horizontal angular distance from true north measured clockwise from true north
(east = 90 degrees, south = 180 degrees, west = 270 degrees, north = 0 degrees)

Elevation angle = Number of degrees the beam is transmitted above the horizon. 0 degrees is parallel to horizon while 90 degrees is straight up

Echo height = Vertical height above the surface to the target at which the radar beam intersects the target

To become a CERT member, you will have to take the CERT training from a sponsoring agency like emergency management or the fire department. If there is not a program in your area, contact your local emergency manager and ask about the education and training opportunities available to you. Let this person know about your interest in CERT.

How do we start a CERT program?
CERT requires a partnership between community members and local government, emergency management and response agencies. The program does take a commitment of time and resources from all parties. Interested community members should discuss with local government and emergency management officials ways to improve their community’s preparedness capability and how they can be involved. The outcome of these discussions can range from education programs to an active training program like CERT that prepares participants to be part of the community’s response capability following major disasters. It is also important to develop a plan that covers training, maintenance and activation standards as well as administrative requirements like databases and funding. This plan will act as a guide so that one can evaluate the program and make adjustments.

How is the CERT funded?
There have been a variety of local approaches to this. Some communities build costs into their budget while others charge participants to cover costs for instructors and course materials. One State offer grants to communities to get the program started. So, there is no one set way. In a very few communities, CERT organization have formed 501 (C) 3 organization for non-profit status. This allows them to do fund raising.

Who can take the training?
Naturals for the training are neighborhood organizations, communities of faith, school staff, workplace employees and other groups that come together regularly for a common purpose.

Can someone under age 18 participate?
Again this is a local decision. Someone under 18 should be with a parent. Some communities have reached out specifically to young people. Winter Springs High School in Florida offers the training to high school students. You can read an article about this on the CERT Web. CERT is a great way to address the community service requirements for high school students and provides students with useful skills. CERT also fits nicely with training given to Boy and Girl Scouts and the Civil Air patrol.

What if I have concerns about my age or physical ability?
There are many jobs within a CERT. People are needed for documentation, comforting others, tracking teams etc. Not everyone is doing physical activity during an exercise or following a disaster. During the training, if one has a concern about doing a skill like lifting, just let the instructor know. You can learn from watching. We would like everyone who wants to go through the training to have an opportunity to participate.

Also, there are many jobs in maintaining the CERT program. People can help by keeping databases, developing a website and newsletter, and organizing activities.

Why take the CERT training?
Local government prepares for everyday emergencies. However, there are emergencies and disaster that can overwhelm the community’s immediate response capability. While adjacent jurisdictions, State and Federal resources can activate to help, there may be a delay for them getting to those who need help. The primary reason for CERT training is to give people the decision-making and physical skills to offer immediate assistance to family members, neighbors, and associates. While people will respond to others in need without the training, the goal of the CERT program is to help them do so effectively and efficiently without placing themselves in unnecessary danger.

A success story about CERTs comes during the wildfires in Florida. The Edgewater CERT helped emergency management and the fire department by assisting with evacuations, handling donations, preparing food for firefighters, and answering the phone while the professionals were fighting the fire. It is a great example of CERT members and response personnel working together for the benefit of the community.

How do CERT members maintain their skills?
CERT members and the sponsor work together to maintain team skills. It is suggested that the sponsor conduct refresher classes and an annual exercise where all CERT members are invited to participate. Some response agencies have conducted joint exercises with CERT team and operate as they would during an actual disaster. The last point does bring up a lesson learned. Besides training CERT members, it is also important to train members of response agencies about CERTs, the skills that teams have and the role that they will have during a major disaster. One way to develop this trust is by encouraging agency personnel to participate in classes as instructors and coaches and activities involving CERTs.

Understanding that CERTs may operate independently following a disaster. CERTs can practice this independence by taking some responsibility for their training. Teams can design activities and exercises for themselves and with other teams. Some members can be rescuers, some victims, and some evaluators. After the event, there can be a social so that teams get to know each other

What if I want to do more than just the basic training?
CERT members may attend classes provided by the community agencies on animal care, special needs concerns, debris removal, utilities control, advanced first aid, Automatic External Defibrillator use, CPR skills, and others.

CERT members are a potential volunteer pool for the community. They can help with special projects like distributing preparedness material, staffing medical booths during special events, and assisting with installation of smoke alarms for seniors or special needs households. Some CERT members have sought additional training opportunities in shelter management, community relations, and donations management.

What payment methods do you accept? Do you accept credit card payments over the phone?
We accept payments made with cash, checks or money orders. We do not accept any credit card payments or payments over the phone.

How is my bill paid?
The Utility Billing office notifies your financial institution of the amount due and they will automatically deduct that amount from your account on the due date.

Is there a charge for this service?
NO. We offer this service free of charge. Your financial institution, however, may charge for the transaction posting to your account (similar to a check clearing charge).

How do I know the amount of my bill?
The Utility Billing office sends you a bill showing the amount to be deducted from your checking or savings account.

What if I have a question about the amount of my bill?
Call our office at 269-966-3366.

How can I be sure my bill was paid?
Your next bill from our office shows the payment. Also, your account statement from your financial institution shows the deduction from your account.

What should I do if I change my checking or savings account?
You need to complete a new authorization form.

How can I stop participating in the Automatic Bill Payment Plan?
Just call us at 269-966-3366, or write us at PO Box 235, Battle Creek, MI 49016.